Navigating a Fading Language and Identity: The Relationship Between Language Proficiency and Ethnic Identity Amongst Sudanese, Nubian Youth

“Speaking one’s heritage language is very important to one’s identity as it is an aspect of observable cultural and social behavior (Isajiw, 1990).”

An individual’s sense of identity is an undeniably significant testament to their wellbeing. As Kroger (2013) states amidst a larger commentary on Erikson’s ego identity model (1968), “a healthy sense of identity provides the individual with a subjective experience of well-being, of being at home in biological, psychological, and societal contexts” (p. 2). Furthermore, considering identity’s ever-changing nature throughout the life span, it is imperative to focus on identity formation in its formative stages- adolescence and young adulthood (Erikson, 1968). As illustrated in Erikson’s ego identity model, the main task in the fifth stage of psychosocial development, adolescence, is to define one’s sense of self, and their role in society (1968).

Just as an individual's identity changes throughout their lifespan, so too does their collective, cultural, and ethnic identity as their societal role forms and reforms. Under the context of the constructionist view, Nagel (1994) describes how the different cultural boundaries form an individual’s ethnic identity and how these cultural boundaries shift due to factors such as migration, language loss, ethnic conflict, etc. So too does one’s ethnic identity shift, adapt, and reconstruct.  Furthermore, these cultural boundaries dictate the ethnic group’s membership criteria and thus influence an individual’s sense of cultural identity and belonging to that cultural identity (Usborne & De la Sablonnière 2014). This builds off of the understanding of a sound cultural identity in that, it is the internalization of the collective identity or an “individual’s perception of the clarity of their cultural identity, and not any objective or true identity that is important” (Baumgardener 4). Since this identity is ever-changing to external social, historical, political factors, a stable sense of identity doesn’t equate to a simple, accurate, or rigid cultural identity. An issue is encountered when dealing with “unclear” cultural identities. Usborne and De la Sablonnière (2014) note Indigenous identities, specifically in North America as an example of an unclear cultural identity. Therefore, significant effects on cultural identity can be seen amongst Indigenous minorities, especially with a history of persecution and conflict, and immigrants or ethnic minorities in multicultural environments (Friedman, 2016). In these contexts, the individual's perception of their collective and cultural identity may be less resolved.

As ethnicities and cultures share common traits, values, and history ethnic identity can be considered as a form of collective identity. While there are several definitions of ethnic identity (Tajfel, 1974; Tsai et al., 2000), this study explores ethnic identity according to the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM) originally published by Phinney (1992). According to this measure, the two factors that constitute ethnic identity are: exploration and commitment. Exploration or ethnic identity search is described as a developmental and cognitive component, whereas affirmation, belonging, and commitment can be seen as an affective component. Bolzis and Villarreal (2014) add to this distinction by highlighting that exploration can also be described as being expressed by behaviors indicating behavioral ethnic identity, while commitment is expressed by attitudes and indicates attitudinal ethnic identity.

Heritage Language - Importance to Identity

Speaking one’s heritage language is very important to one’s identity as it is an aspect of observable cultural and social behavior (Isajiw, 1990). Moreover, a prominent instrument measuring ethnic identity known as the General Ethnicity Questionnaire (Tsai et al., 2000) utilizes heritage language fluency as a component of ethnic identity. Generally, many scholars echo this belief (De Vos, 1995; Fishman, 1999; Giles, Bourhis, & Taylor, 1977; Isajiw, 1990). However, the study conducted by Kim and Chao (2009) aimed to challenge or affirm this assumption in the context of first- and second-generation Chinese immigrants and first, second, and third generation Mexican immigrants. The results identified “heritage language fluency is an important component of ethnic identity for second-generation Mexican adolescents, but not for second-generation Chinese adolescents” (Kim & Chao 2009). Illustrating the varying significance of heritage language fluency to ethnic identity amongst different ethnic groups, and the importance of conducting empirical studies to test the significance of heritage language fluency to ethnic identity across various ethnic groups and heritage languages. Generally, however, Phinney et al. (2001) cites in-group peer interaction, parental cultural maintenance, and primarily ethnic language proficiency as factors that influence ethnic identity regardless of the ethnic group.

Nubians

Nubians are an ethnolinguistic group indigenous to Northern Sudan and Southern Egypt. The Nubian Nile Valley describes the land that extends from the first to the fourth cataract of the Nile. The ancient Nubian region was home to 3 successive kingdoms from 2400 B.C.E to 300 C.E the Kush, Napata, and Meroe kingdoms respectively. Ancient Nubia has cultivated great cultural heritage (Adams, 1967). The Old Nubian language is attested from the 8th century, and is thus the oldest recorded language of Africa (Bianchi, 2004). The term “Nubian” has come to describe the multiple languages spoken in the region that fall in the East Sudanic family under the Nilo-Saharan language phylum including: Kenuz in the Aswan area, Andaandi (Donglowai), Nobiin (Mahas/ Fadija). Nubian languages are also found South of Sudan in the Kordofan region (referred to as the Nuba Mountains/ Hills) and in Darfur (Meidob). Despite each area between the cataracts of the Nile Nubian Valley being marked with a distinct language, Hopkins and Mehanna (2011) point out that culturally there was more of a continuum. Gilmore (2015) confirms that “Nubians self-identify through their common social structures, strong communal ties, shared oral literature, beliefs, artistic artifacts, and, most importantly, their deep spiritual tie to the Nile and their agricultural lands” (p. 53). This study focuses on Nile Nubian languages rather than non-Nile Nubian languages due to their shared recent history.

Language Endangerment - The Nile Nubian Languages

Bernard (1996) identifies that 97% of the world’s people speak about 4% of the world’s languages, highlighting the growing epidemic of language endangerment and loss. There are many standards to assess the extent to which a language is endangered, however, according to the latest criteria set in 2003 by UNESCO, there are 9 factors that assess and measure the level of endangerment of the world’s languages.

The Nubian Nile Valley languages are currently classified under a vulnerable status according to UNESCO’s language vitality and endangerment criteria (UNESCO Ad Hoc Expert Group on Endangered Languages, 2003). Some of the nine factors pertinent to the Nubian languages include but are not limited to:  intergenerational language transmission, materials for language education and literacy, trends in existing language domains, governmental and institutional language attitudes and policies, community members’ attitudes towards their own language, and amount and quality of documentation (Barzilai & Khalil, 2020; Beriar & Abdo Rababah, 2016; UNESCO Ad Hoc Expert Group on Endangered Languages, 2003; Yamamoto et. al,). However, the primary reasons behind the endangered status of the Nile Nubian languages from UNESCO’s 9 criteria are identified as intergenerational language transmission and domains of language use (Rowan, 2017). Context contributing to this endangered status will be discussed in the following sub-section.

Current Context

Current census data on ethnic minorities in Sudan is difficult to attain and confirm (Janmyr, 2016). However, according to Barzilai and Khalil’s (2020) study on Nobiin, one of the main Nile Nubian languages, there are around 545,000 members of Nobiin community. Considering Sudan’s population of 44.9 million as of 2021 according to the United Nations Population Fund, Nobiin and other small Nubian communities carry the burden of language preservation. According to Rowan (2017) the effects of this burden is evident as the Kenuz Nubian language has endured the most loss in language speakers so much so that figures indicate that there are currently estimated to be 50,000 speakers. The context that has contributed to the Nubian languages meeting UNESCO’s standards of an endangered language have not just affected Nubians, but other ethnic minorities, and Sudan as a nation. The contextual events include relocation due to construction of hydro-electric dams, demographic engineering, civil war and natural disasters (Barzilai & Khalil, 2020; Beriar and Rababah 2016; Rowan, 2017). In 1952, Egypt decided on the construction of the Aswan High Dam, creating an eventual reservoir (now known as Lake Nasser) that flooded Nubia up to Wadi Halfa, a large Nubian border city. The construction of that dam led to the displacement of over 100,000 Nubians between 1960 and 1970. Moreover, between 2003 and 2009, 70,000 more Nile Nubian communities were displaced (Rowan, 2017).

Previously, the Nubian people were relatively isolated from the rest of Sudan (Simone, 2009). ‘The Nubians had clung to their narrow strip of fertile land along the banks of the Nile…they were separated from the rest of mankind… their Nile remained their sole life-giver.” (Dafalla, 1975, p. 92). With little contact with other ethnic groups, the Nubian language was their primary form of communication, despite being surrounded by Arabs (Beriar and Rababah 2016). Moreover, according to excerpts from The Nubian Exodus (1975), an anthropological study describes an “us” vs “them” mentality to the extent to which those outside of Nuba were described as Sudanese, while most Nubians did not identify as such. However, with the forced relocation, Nubians were forced to move to areas such as Kom Ombo. These areas were much less isolated than their homelands, as such they had to cope with regular contact with Arabs and Arabic. Both Abou Ras (2012) and Beriar and Rababah (2016) describe the Arab-language media such as television and radio as large influences in the radical shifts that influenced Nubian tradition and language.

This is described as language shifts, wherein the Nubian languages became the languages of the minority and the Arabic language dominated the region. Nubians had to learn Arabic in schools and education, and Nubian languages were relegated to the language of the family, an informal domain (Rowan, 2017). Affirming Brown’s (2003) theory that heritage language speakers with ethnic backgrounds have a “public identity” that can be different from their “private identity” (p. 61). Today’s members of the Nubian community who grew up in Egypt and Sudan are native Arabic speakers; this situation is a result not only of Arabic education but also labour related migration and urbanization beginning around the 1960s (Kronenberg & Kronenberg, 1963). In the present day, Nubian languages continue to die out, with only elders being able to speak their dialect fluently (Fluehr-Lobban & Lobban, 2009, p. 313). This has caused linguists to focus more attention on language maintenance and language shift (Fishman, 2010) or the study of the imperfect speaker” (Dorian, 1992). Rouchdy (1991) focused on the impacts of this language shift, however, exclusively amongst Egyptian Nubians.

Gap In Research

As illustrated in Appendix A, no study using the MEIM scale has been conducted on a population of Sudanese, Nubian youth let alone a population of African youth. Moreover, there is a great focus in sociolinguistic literature on ‘proper Nubian’ (Adams, 1967; Kronenberg & Waltraud,1963) or Nubians in Egypt (Rouchdy, 1991), but little (Abou Ras, 2012; Beriar & Rababah, 2016) on the ‘informal’ Nubian language speaker or Sudanese Nubians language proficiency and identity generally. As Rowan (2017) notes, Nubia is infamous for UNESCO’s involvement in saving the Nubian Nile Valley’s tangible history from the destruction caused by the construction of hydro-electric dams, however, “the intangible heritage of these communities has been relegated to second place” (177). For that reason, the current study aims to target Sudanese Nubians, those in Nuba, Sudan, and the diaspora, in order to analyze ethnic identity at all levels of proficiency in the Nubian language. Additionally given the multicultural contexts of the diaspora, the study will examine the impacts of other languages aside from Arabic on Nubian language proficiency. Additionally, this study aims to target youth specifically in order to analyze the intergenerational transmission of the Nubian language.

Purpose of Study

This study aims to address the aforementioned gaps in research by addressing the following question: In the context of Sudanese Nubian youth inside and outside Sudan, to what extent is proficiency in the Nubian language associated with their sense of ethnic identity according to the MEIM (Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure). The study hypothesizes that if young Sudanese, Nubians self-report higher Nubian language proficiencies they will demonstrate higher scores of ethnic identities, in line with previous studies, identifying more confident, resolved ethnic identities, being those members of the diaspora. And to an extent, Nubians within Sudan struggle with additional hurdles of assimilation. Large variance is expected between the self-reported heritage language proficiencies of members of the diaspora and those in Sudan, and especially those within Nuba. Closer physical proximity to the Nubian language and culture is expected to correlate with higher language proficiency and ethnic identity scores.

Methodology

This correlational study employed a qualitative approach using a cross-sectional, non-experimental questionnaire wherein participants self-reported their responses. Similar qualitative questionnaires were employed in Habibi et al. (2021) and Ali et al. (2014) applications of the MEIM. Moreover, in order to examine a preliminary relationship between heritage language proficiency and ethnic identity amongst Sudanese, Nubian youth a simple, non-experimental questionnaire suited the given limitations of the assignment’s time frame. Participants were of Sudanese ethnicity, Nubian heritage, and between the ages of 15-24 in accordance with the World Health Organization’s (2021) definition of youth.

Questionnaire

The questionnaire (see Appendix B) can be divided into 3 sections: 1) demographic questions with an emphasis on proximity to Nuba, 2) questions assessing self-perceived proficiency in a Nubian language or dialect (see Appendix C) and 3) The 12-item Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM) adopted by Phinney (1992) (see Appendix D). The questions assessing language proficiency and proximity were adopted from the are replicable as they are modeled after Statistics Canada’s (2017) Aboriginal Peoples Survey (APS), specifically the section on language proficiency which uses the 5-point Likert scale for ability, importance, and likelihood. The questions were adapted into statements using the same language of the question, and utilized the 5-point Likert scale for agreement in order to establish continuity throughout the survey. Additionally, the published 12-item MEIM uses a 4-point scale for agreement, however, for this study the scale was modified to a 5-point Likert scale in order to include a neutral option, providing continuity and ease throughout the survey. A similar modification is made in the studies of Habibi et al. (2021) and Ali et al. (2014). The 5-point Likert scale uses an interval scale that is best suited for calculating averages, which the study aims to do. Additionally, the addition of the modifier somewhat agree and somewhat disagree has been proven to provide more accurate results than simply stating agree and disagree (Ali et al., 2014).

In regards to the dissemination of the questionnaire, it was administered along with a consent form (see Appendix E) informing respondents of the purpose, risks, and benefits of the study while ensuring their anonymity. Measures to ensure anonymity include distributing the survey through an anonymous link feature on Qualtrics that is unable to track identifying information of respondents to the survey. Furthermore, the study was approved by an Internal Review Board consisting of school administrators in light of the use of human respondents. The questionnaire was administered and randomized through the use of large, Nubian-targeted as well as general Sudanese-targeted social media platforms on primarily Facebook and Instagram to widen my reach. Keywords such as ‘Nubian’, ‘Nuba’, ‘Sudan’, ‘Andaandi/Donglowai’, ‘Nobiin/Mahas/ Fadija’ were used in search of these targeted platforms, and it is best to replicate these searches in order to create a Nubian targeted echo-chamber feed. A specific account through which the survey was distributed, @nubian.language on Instagram, has one of the largest Nubian youth following. The use of social media as a means of sample selection is justified since my target sample is youth, betw it only makes sense to utilize young people’s most utilized platform.

Data Analysis

The Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM) is a 12-item scale that measures 2 factors: ethnic identity search or exploration (a developmental and cognitive component) and affirmation, belonging, and commitment (an affective component). Items 1, 2, 4, 8 and 10 measure ethnic identity search, and items 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11, and 12 measure affirmation, belonging, and commitment. In order to compare the 2 components individually, the mean of all the items pertaining to each component will be calculated (resulting in a score of 1-4). The total mean of all 12 components will also be calculated to compare between Nubians of different geographic locations, ages, and language proficiencies.

Using Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient to determine the correlation between MEIM score and total score for assessing language proficiency. The language proficiency score will be composed of items 1, 2, and 3. A response of ‘Yes’ to item 1 will correlation to 1 point while a response of ‘No’ will correlate to 0 points. The sum from item 1 will be added to the sums of the response to items 2 and 3. (Strongly agree = 5, strongly disagree = 1) to comprise a total score out of a possible 11 points that assess language proficiency. Item 4 was excluded from the score of language proficiency as it assesses the importance of the Nubian language to the individual rather than the proficiency of the individual in that language. It is important to note that items 1, 2, and 3 do not assess objectively the individual’s proficiency in the Nubian language but rather the individual’s perception of their proficiency in the language. However, these items are still appropriate considering that as it pertains to matters of collective identity the stability of one’s identity is based on their perception of their identity rather than the complexity or fragmentation of their identity (Usborne & De la Sablonnière 2014). Moreover, relying on perceived or self-reported language abilities is the standard method of assessing language ability in large-scale studies, including the U.S. Census (Portes & Hao, 2002), and are generally reliable (Portes & Hao, 2002; Portes & Schauffler, 1994; Smith & Baldauf, 1982). The total score of individuals assessing language proficiency will then be ranked 1-n in order from smallest to largest. This will then be compared to that individual’s MEIM score including both the motivation and commitment component separately. Based on the strength of the correlation coefficient, the results will be blocked based on country of residence or nationality as needed to illustrate possible confounding or lurking variables. A scatter plot graph and trend line will be used to indicate an association between language proficiency and MEIM, but the correlation coefficient will be used to confirm the strength and direction of association. As with any correlation coefficient, r, the value will range from 1 to -1.

Results

The below Figure 1 is a scatterplot illustrating the correlation between the self-reported or perceived language proficiency (PLP) and MEIM score calculated for each individual (n=55). Also illustrated in Figure 1 is the correlation between each individual’s perceived language proficiency score and the score pertaining to both the exploration and commitment components of the MEIM score. The highest correlation coefficient is that between the PLP score and score of the exploration component.

However, because the correlation coefficients are fairly weak and show no strong correlation between PLP and MEIM, the Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient is calculated instead to illustrate a more accurate correlation. The Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient ranks each component, PLP and ME, as illustrated in Table 1, which indicates the process used to calculate the Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient on a selected sample of 6 individuals. Ranking variables and comparing relative differences helps eliminate any subjective bias associated with the variable of self-reported language proficiency.

Figure 1
Perceived Language Proficiency and MEIM Score (Including Exploration and Commitment)

Table 1
Calculations of Spearman’s Rank Correlation Coefficient

Language Proficiency Score (A)	Rank A	MEIM Score (B)	Rank B	d	d2
4	54	4.9	5.5	48.5	2352.25
4	54	3.8	45.5	8.5	72.25
4	54	4.6	19.5	34.5	1190.25
5	49.5	3.8	45.5	4	16
5	49.5	4.5	24	25.5	650.25
5	49.5	3.4	51	1.5	2.25
				Sum of d2 (∑d2)	18674

Note. The table includes only a sample of 6 individuals. However, the same calculations were applied to all 55 individual responses from the sample.

Table 2

 Spearman’s Rank Correlation Coefficient Results

	Nationality	MEIM	Exploration	Commitment
Self-reported Nubian language proficiency	Total a	0.3263***	0.3079**	0.2644**
	Sudanese b	0.5072****		0.4459**
	Other c	0.0189*

Note.  All tests were conducted with 0 degrees of freedom assumed.

 ^a n = 55. ^b n = 33. ^c n = 22

*p>0.50. **p=0.05. ***p<0.05. ****p=0.005.

Results of the Spearman correlation in Table 2 indicate that there is a weak positive association between the individual’s perceived proficiency in the Nubian language and their sense of ethnic identity according to the MEIM scale, (rs [55]= .3263, p = 0.02). There is a 2% probability that the null hypothesis is correct p = 0.02 (98% statistical significance level). Therefore, the alternative hypothesis must be accepted that indeed there is a weak positive correlation between the individual’s PLP and sense of ethnic identity. The null hypothesis that there is no correlation can be rejected. However, correlation does not imply causation. Therefore, we cannot conclude that increased PLP is the cause behind an increased MEIM score. The weak association can be attributed to the relatively small sample size of n=55.

The Spearman correlation coefficient was also conducted while blocking on the variable of country of nationality. Due to the small sample size, the data was divided into 2 blocks: Sudanese nationality (n=33) and ‘Other’ nationalities (n=22). Other nationalities were comprised of American, English, Canadian, Dutch, Swedish, and Australian (in order of quantity)- note dual nationalities (i.e., American and Sudanese) were included in other nationalities. Results in Table 2 indicate that there is a moderate positive association between the PLP of individuals with a Sudanese nationality and their sense of ethnic identity according to the MEIM scale, (rs [33]= .5072, p = 0.005). There is a 0.5% probability that the null hypothesis is correct p=0.005 (99.5% statistical significance level). So, the alternative hypothesis that there is a moderate positive association between their PLP and sense of ethnic identity amongst Nubian Sudanese nationality holders must be accepted. The null hypothesis that there is no correlation is rejected. Conversely, results of the Spearman correlation for individuals with nationalities other than Sudanese nationalities found that there was a very weak positive correlation between their PLP and sense of ethnic identity according to the MEIM scale, (rs [22]= .0189, p = >0.50). There is a 50% chance that the null hypothesis is correct (below 50% statistical significance). So, the null hypothesis that there is no correlation between the PLP of individuals with ‘Other’ nationalities and their sense of ethnic identity according to the MEIM scale must be accepted.

Table 3

Average scores of ethnic identity components by place of residence

	Exploration	Commitment	MEIM
Sudan (n=16)	3.6	4.5	4.1
MENAa (n=17)	4.2	4.6	4.4
Americab (n=7)	4.2	4.8	4.5
Europe (n=12)	3.85	4.4	4.2

 

Note. ^a MENA - Middle East/ North Africa. ^bN. America - North America (United States and Canada). 

 

When examining the average scores of the ethnic identity components and total ethnic identity score while blocking on the variable of country of residence in Table 3, it is evident that higher scores of the commitment component appear to be from respondents in the MENA region and North America (US and Canada).

Discussion

The strongest correlation was found between the perceived language proficiency (PLP) score and the MEIM score. Between the 2 components of ethnic identity, however, the stronger correlation was found between PLP and exploration rather than PLP and commitment. When blocking the results of the correlation between an individual’s PLP score and MEIM score by the lurking variable of nationality, it was found that the strongest association between an individual’s PLP score and MEIM score was amongst those with a Sudanese nationality. On the other hand, a very weak association was found between the PLP score and MEIM score of individuals with other nationalities. The average MEIM, including both the exploration and commitment component, scores indicate that the highest scores arise from respondents in the MENA region and North America.

The relatively strong correlation between self-reported language proficiency and MEIM score affirms previous research of the importance of heritage language fluency to the ethnic identity of an individual (De Vos, 1995; Fishman, 1999; Giles, Bourhis, & Taylor, 1977; Isajiw, 1990). Generally, considering all correlations are positive, in line with aforementioned studies further suggests increased proficiency in the heritage language of Nubian languages - associated with a more resolved, stable sense of ethnic identity. However, the results differed in that there was a stronger correlation between self-reported language proficiency and the exploration component of ethnic identity rather than the commitment component. Essentially, ethnic identity search or exploration is a developmental and cognitive component that has a stronger correlation with language proficiency. The correlation can likely be attributed to the theory that exploration leads to better language acquisition. There is a degree of bidirectionality in the correlation being that increased search and inquiry of an individual’s ethnic identity and thus immersion in the practices, traditions, history of an ethnic group can be correlated with better language acquisition and thus increased language proficiency to support one’s navigation in their ethnic group (Fishman, 2010; Yu, 2015)

On the other hand, affirmation, belonging, and commitment is an affective component of ethnic identity. Therefore, language proficiency as a measure of ethnic identity does not encompass the emotional aspect of ethnic identity. Mah’s (2005) study on second generation Chinese adults helps explain the duality in one’s ethnic identity and correlation with heritage language proficiency. Mah (2005) found that heritage language proficiency was only linked to the individual’s ability to participate in ethnic activities such as cultural rituals, and other factors pertaining to items 1, 2, 4, 8, and 10 (ethnic identity search or exploration items) on the MEIM survey. However, heritage language was not linked to ethnic pride or core values of Chinese groups or the affirmation, belonging, and commitment component of ethnic identity. A study conducted in Australia by Smolicz (1992) reported similar results. The value of heritage language maintenance to one’s ethnic identity varied across different ethnic groups within Australians, suggesting that the nature of the ethnic group and its values, tradition, and culture or cultural rituals influences the importance of heritage language proficiency to ethnic identity.

The stronger correlation between language proficiency and exploration affirms Phinney’s conclusion that the exploration component of ethnic identity precedes the commitment component of ethnic identity (1992). Theoretically, the exploration component must be achieved before an individual can progress to the commitment component of ethnic identity or more exploration leads to stronger commitment (Phinney, 1992) Further exploration could include examining the correlation between the two components to understand the nature of their interconnectedness.

Given the higher scores of the commitment component of ethnic identity amongst those residing in the MENA region and North America, suggests a possible contradiction to my hypothesis that greater proximity to Nuba, or Sudan is to be associated with higher scores of ethnic identity. Possible reasoning for the low average in the exploration component of ethnic identity for those residing in Sudan could be due to already being relatively surrounded by Nubian culture, or at least more so than those residing in other regions of the world. These results possibly echo the concept that it is the internalization of the collective identity or an “individual’s perception of the clarity of their cultural identity, and not any objective or true identity that is important” (Usborne & De la Sablonnière, 2014, p. 438).

Sociopolitical Implications

As the study sheds light on the intergenerational language loss amongst Sudanese, Nubian youth it draws upon many sociopolitical implications. Primarily, it informs the variety of ways through which relevant stakeholders are able to contribute to Nubian language preservation. These include encouraging youth to explore their heritage through engaging with existing resources, whether educational material or family members, encouraging parents to promote their heritage language literacy amongst their children, and encourage investment into grassroots, community preservation initiatives in and outside of Sudan to promote cultural continuity (Kim & Chao, 2009; Rowan, 2017; Yu, 2015). A multitude of studies indicate more resolved ethnic identities after attending weekend heritage language schools (Chinen & Tucker, 2006; Oketani, 1997; Shibata, 2000). Furthermore, the study aims to promote investment in educational resources fostering Nubian language literacy. Given that 80% of participants identified Arabic as their primary language, specifically in regard to the demand for Nubian language literacy and limited supply, this can indicate that Nubian literacy resources can be targeted primarily to Arabic speakers.

 Furthermore, by emphasizing the importance of Nubian language preservation and its implications on the ethnic identity of youth, the study aims to promote awareness surrounding the devastating impacts of the construction of hydro-electric dam projects and prevent further construction of proposed hydro-electric dam projects (Barzilai & Khalil, 2020; Rowan, 2017). In regards to the study’s political implications, through shifting social attitudes towards Nubian heritage preservation, the study aims to draw attention upon both Sudanese and Egyptian governmental and institutional language attitudes and policies including official status and use, to encourage the dismantling of oppressive policies and their replacement with inclusive policies (UNESCO, 2003).

Limitations

The primary limitation of my results is the small sample size. Considering that only 55 of the 107 responses were fully completed from start to finish, the correlation results can only indicate association and not causation. A possible explanation for the low completion rate and generally low sample size could be that English posed a language barrier to many of the respondents. Taking into account that 80% of all 107 respondents indicated Arabic as their primary language suggests that the reason for the low completion rate could be lack of comprehension of the questions and statements of the questionnaire due to limited English proficiency. Additionally, this language barrier could have contributed to a possible acquiescence or agreement bias seen in the Sudanese nationality group, the group with the strongest correlation. This could be because respondents could not fully comprehend the statements in English and simply agreed with the statements leading to the strong agreement responses and thus strong correlation. Another possible limitation of the study, and future improvement, includes incorporating qualitative data and/or implementing a mixed-method approach. For example, implementing an exploratory, qualitative analysis in the form of a focus group before implementing the existing explanatory analysis in the form of a questionnaire, could be more beneficial in retrieving rich, holistic data and tailoring the questionnaire to be more efficient. However, it is to be noted that many of the initial applications of the MEIM survey on populations is done so only through the use of a qualitative survey initially (Ali et al., 2014; Habibi et al., 2021).

Future Research

Being that the primary limitation is the small sample size, a replication study using the same questionnaire over a longer time span in order to garner a larger sample size would be recommended. Additionally, providing two versions of the questionnaire: one in English, and another in Arabic would enable a larger and more representative sample. Another recommendation to garner a larger sample size would be to reduce the response time of the survey by using the 6-item MEIM survey instead of the 12-item MEIM survey. Additionally, in order to draw upon a more representative sample, focusing efforts on diversifying the social media platforms through which the survey is distributed. Moreover, in order to gain richer data, using a mixed method approach would be recommended. Once more, comprehensive research examining the preliminary relationship between and amongst language proficiency and the components of ethnic identity, amongst Sudanese, Nubian youth is needed. The relationship between and amongst heritage language proficiency and other components and indicators such as but not limited to school effort and success, self-efficacy, self-esteem, and subjective wellbeing, should also be examined. (Crul, 2018; Habibi et al., 2021; Kim & Chao, 2009; Perez, 2011; Yu, 2015). Moreover, using a mixed method approach and initial exploratory, qualitative analysis can help determine other possible variables to explore on the topic of the language proficiency and identity of Sudanese, Nubian youth.

*Lena studies at the University of Toronto and is a former student at the American School of Doha, Qatar. The relationship between identity, heritage and Indigenous language proficiency amongst the Sudanese Nubian youth, is one of her research projects.

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Appendix A

Country	Author	Participants	Ethnicity/Race	EFA/CFA	Reliability (Alpha)
USA	Roberts et al. (1999)	N = 5,423 Students in sixth to eighth grades 49% female, Mage = 12.9	African American (n = 1, 237); Central American (n = 253); Chinese American (n = 177); European American (n = 755); Indian American (n = 188); Mexican American (n = 755); Pakistani American (n = 155); Vietnamese American (n = 304); and Pacific Islander (n = 101); and mixed ancestry (n = 342).	EFA	Total: .85 Factor1: (affirmation, belonging, and commitment) = .84 Factor2 (ethnic identity search): .70
Australia	Dandy et al. (2008)	N = 485 55% female Mage = 12.20 and SDage = 1.36	Anglo-Celtic Australian ethnocultural background (46%); Asian (n = 42); Southern European (n = 48); Indigenous Australian (n = 15)	CFA (three-factor)	Affirmation:.83 Exploration: .74 OGO: .66
Lebanon	Kazarian & Boyadjian (2008)	N = 525 60.4% female Mage = 16.8 and SDage = 1.06	Armenian or hyphenated Armenian (e.g., Lebanese-Armenian)	EFA	.88 Ethnic identity = .70 affirmation, belonging, and commitment = .86
Spain	Esteban, Nadal & Vila (2010)	N = 662 55% female and 45% male Mage = 21.7 and SDage = 2.65	326 mestizos and 336 indigenous	EFA and CFA	Overall (For ethnic minority and ethnic majority group): .84 and .83 Ethnic Identity Affirmation:.81 and .79 Ethnic Exploration subscale: .76 and .75
USA	Burrow-Sanchez (2014)	N = 106 91.5% male Mage = 15.5 and SDage = 1.3	Bicultural with a slight Anglo orientation (44.3%) or balanced bicultural to Mexican oriented (42.9%)	CFA	.99
USA	Yap et al. (2016)	N = 9, 107 72.8% female Mage = 20.31 and SDage = 3.38	Black (8.3%) White (60.9%) Asian (13.7%) Hispanic (14.8%) Middle Eastern (1.3%) Colored–South African (.1%)	CFA
USA	Sarno & Mohr (2016)	N = 622 LGB self-identified male (n = 278), female (n = 328), Transgender male-to-female (n = 3), Transgender female-to-male (n = 8); not reported (n = 5). (M = 22.95; SD = 5.64)	African American/Black (n = 29), Asian American/ Pacific Islander (n = 33), Latina/Latino/Hispanic (n = 62), Native American/American Indian (n = 21), or White/Caucasian/European American (n = 514). lesbian (n = 197), gay (n = 244), or bisexual (n = 181).	EFA and CFA	Total = .91 Clarity = .75 Engagement = .83 Pride = .90

Appendix A. Studies validating psychometric properties of different versions of the MEIM in different countries and populations (Habibi et al., 2021).

Appendix B

Questionnaire as presented to respondent